Supply Chain: Recycling & Secondary Markets (Industry)

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Pathway Decisions: Reuse Versus Recycling The LIB life cradle-to-grave cycle incorporates new battery production, first use, refurbishment, reuse, and end-of-life (EOL) stages.

Applications in the reuse phase include energy storage systems (ESSs), communication base stations (CBSs), and low-speed vehicles (LSVs). Pink and teal icons illustrate the economic and environmental functions of each stage.

At the EOL stage, pretreatment and 3 recycling technologies are considered, including hydrometallurgical, direct, and pyrometallurgical recycling.

The life cycle of a battery begins with material extraction, refinement, component (cell) production, and assembly into modules and packs. These packs are used in electric vehicles (EVs) during the first use stage, after which the battery packs are disassembled, tested for viability, and reassembled for further use during the refurbishment stage. The second-life battery (SLB) costs are related to the state of health, residual capacity potential, resourcing, repurposing, amount of retired batteries, refurbishment technology efficiency, and reuse rate. The operation cost comprises daily maintenance costs and operational costs. Source: R. Ma et. al (2024); CES Online/The Battery Lifecycle Report 2025 by Circular Energy Storage

Aggregated anticipated lifecycle of BEV models in Europe and United States

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